Guilty Pleasures

One of the problems Helen Hackett begins with in her book, Women and Romance Fiction in the English Renaissance, is the issue of how to track women’s readership.  She quotes David Cressy, a scholar attempting to determine the rates of women’s literacy in the period, saying “unfortunately, reading leaves no record” (6).  Sometimes, however, there is a kind of record.  Aristocratic women such as Lady Margaret Hoby, Lady Grace Mildmay, Lady Anne Clifford, Mary (Herbert) Sidney, and Lady Mary Wroth did keep diaries of their reading.  In the cases of Mary Sidney (the Countess of Pembroke) and Lady Mary Wroth, her niece, they did more than just leave a diary.  Both these women were heavily involved in the writing and publication of romances.  Mary Sidney facilitated the publication and editing of her brother Philip Sidney’s Old and New Arcadias and Lady Mary Wroth wrote her own romance, Urania, published in 1621.  Lady Anne Clifford proudly records (and even displays in a portrait) her reading of romance throughout her life.  Yet, as Hackett reminds us, she “may well have enjoyed more license to read secular works than did women in less privileged circumstances, and may also have enjoyed more license to admit such reading” (8).  Lady Margaret Hoby and Lady Grace Mildmay in their diaries stick to the “safe” topics of religious works, herbals, and housekeeping manuals and make a point to eschew more popular reading.  Hoby and Mildmay’s attitudes toward reading in their diaries seem to be more standard, while Clifford’s is unique.  These gentlewomen, as Jacqueline Pearson states, seem to represent the idea that “women tended not to record recreational reading because they had absorbed the conservative anxiety about it” (7).  Moralists and educationists of the period endlessly warned against the unsuitability of romances as a pastime for daughters and wives, while “foolish female readers” were a favorite subject of satirists.  Yet even if most women did not record their pleasure reading it does not mean that they didn’t read for fun.

When you study the literature and reading habits of the past it often becomes apparent just how much things stay the same.  The anxiety over reading romance novels in the early modern period resonates with contemporary anxiety over genre fiction and popular reading choices.  I am reminded of a story my dad relates: it was during the Harry Potter boom when everyone was reading (and loving!) the wizarding adventures of J.K. Rowling.  He was flying business class on a work trip.  Somewhat sheepishly, looking around at his besuited and austere-looking co-travellers, he brought out his copy of The Prisoner of Azkaban to continue reading.  However, he soon noticed the font style of the book the businessman near him was reading looked suspiciously familiar…the other man was reading the same Harry Potter book, but he had shoved it into the book jacket of a dry business manual.  Who knows how many readers in the Renaissance went around with The Knight of the Swanne encased in the binding of a prayer book…

Yet what makes the genre of romance different even than contemporary popular fiction is the insistence on women readers.  Even modern romance novels are thought to be consumed primarily by a female audience.  It is interesting that in the 1580s, when “female romance-readership was not at all extensive, authors like Lyly, Rich, and Greene were blatantly addressing their fictions to women readers” (9-10).  Hackett makes the case that these male authors wished their works to be perceived as directed toward women.  Hackett states that moralists against women reading romances had three premises on which they based their vitriolic concerns: “that romances exercise undue freedom concerning erotic matters; that women are especially susceptible to the charms of such erotic entertainments; and that the consequent effect of romance upon women will be to make them sexually unruly” (10-11).  The upshot of this is that, if authors addressed their wares to women, they were advertising their work as “racy, lightweight and fun” (11).  For the male reader, there is also an aspect of voyeurism to reading romances—a way to get a tantalizing glimpse into a women’s private chamber and to understand what might excite her reading pleasure.  As Hackett expresses, the end point of this argument is “a pretty depressing conclusion” (18) as it suggests there might have been a much smaller female reading public after all.  However, she suggests that while it may have been exaggerated, and while male readership might also have played a part in the positioning of romances, there still must have been women readers—enough to lead to the established female romance-readership of the mid seventeenth century.  

1st Post: Orlando Furioso!

“Fencing. Fighting. Torture. Poison. True love. Hate. Revenge. Giants. Hunters. Bad men. Good men. Beautifulest ladies. Snakes. Spiders. Beasts of all natures and descriptions. Pain. Death. Brave men. Coward men. Strongest men. Chases. Escapes. Lies. Truths. Passion. Miracles” (9).

 –The Princess Bride

What William Goldman’s father promises of S. Morgenstern’s The Princess Bride (the authorial charade here is so perfect for the genre!) may easily describe Ludovico Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso.  I must admit I am extremely excited about this next reading list.  Already I am besotted with the Furioso (particularly the bits with the enchantresses and the hippogryff…).  It is an utterly delightful frenetic romp through a fantastical world and is rendered beautifully in Guido Waldman’s narrative translation (a clear superior to clumsier English poetic translations).  Ariosto’s epic romance poem was published in its original Italian in 1532 in forty-six cantos.  By the time an English translation was printed in 1591, by Sir John Harington, twelve versions had already appeared in France.  Orlando Furioso was a direct influence on Edmund Spenser’s Faerie Queene (Spenser openly avowed to surpass Ariosto’s achievement and most likely read one of the French versions).  Ariosto’s long poem may be said to be the basis for all early modern romance.

What strikes me about Orlando Furioso is how seamlessly it bridges earlier medieval chivalric romance and later, more self-reflexive, Renaissance romance adventures like Margaret Cavendish’s Assaulted and Pursued Chastity.  It feels in some ways very much like Wolfram von Eschenbach’s Parzival.  Both of these romantic epics are essentially fan fictions—continuations of earlier legends, and written in languages distinct from the original stories.  Where Wolfram’s source text is Chrétien de Troyes’ Perceval, Ariosto’s source text is La Chanson de Roland.  Both authors build on the original story structure and widen its geographical and topical scope.  Yet what I find exceptionally novel about Wolfram’s Parzival and self-consciously present in Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso is editorial critique.  When Parzival’s father Gahmuret leaves his first wife, the African queen Belacane, for more adventuring the author spills a significant amount of ink in berating the foolish knight for leaving such a singularly beautiful and wise woman (noting their ethnic and religious differences this is even more surprising for the period).  Ariosto poses social critiques in a similar fashion. 

In a scene that reminds me of Malory’s reworking of the poisoned apple episode in Le Morte d’Arthur—one that also questions the unreasonableness of certain law traditions—the hero Rinaldo learns from a group of monks of the plight of the significantly named Scottish princess Guinevere who has been accused of taking a lover unlawfully.  According to “the cruel and pitiless law of Scotland any woman, whatever her condition, who engages in union with a man, and is not his wife, must be put to death if an accusation is laid against her.  And she has no recourse against death unless a mighty warrior come and undertake her defence, maintaining that she be innocent and not deserving of death” (Canto 4 56-65, p. 37).  Rinaldo thinks on this a while, then replies:

            Is a maiden to die, then, because she permitted her true love to discharge his passion in

her loving arms? A curse on the man who imposed such a law, and a curse on the man who can suffer it!  She who is without a heart deserves to die, not she who confers life upon her faithful lover. / Whether it be true or false that Guinevere received her lover, this is no concern of mine.  Had she done so, I should blame her not at all, if she had only preserved her secret.  Her defence is now my entire care […] It is not for mea to vouch that she did not do it—I do not know, and could perhaps speak falsely.  What I will say is that she should incur no punishment for such an act, and that whoever devised these pernicious laws was unjust or downright mad: they should be repealed as evil, and new laws should be framed with greater wisdom. / If the same ardour, the same urge drives both sexes to love’s gentle fulfillment, which to the mindless commoner seems so grave an excess, why is the woman to be punished or blamed for doing with one or several men the very thing a man does with as many women as he will, and receives not punishment but praise for it? / This unequal law does obvious injustice to women, and, by God, I hope to show how criminal it is that such a law should have survived so long! (Canto 4. 56-72, p. 37-38). 

Ariosto’s choice of the name Guinevere clearly implies a reworking of the Arthurian myth and a critique of the central moral conflict and its mortal punishment.  In my further studies over the weekend, I want to explore the response to such a scene as this in early modern England.  Was this sexual freedom brushed aside as only an Italian way of thought, or did it resonate with the British as well?  Ariosto’s treatment of women so far has been refreshing and surprising.  I also want to read up more on this topic as well.  The maiden warrior Bradamant is wonderfully self-affirming and powerful, and is aided by equally fantastic women, such as the enchantress Melissa.  While the fleeing virginal damsel Angelica seems at first to be a stock character, in Ariosto even she is far less passive and far more calculating than her Spenserian and other romance counterparts. 

The inescapable comparison between Ariosto and Spenser is what I find the most frustrating.  I have always been a staunch supporter of The Faerie Queene’s merits and originally wanted to spend part of my dissertation attempting to bring more of the best moments to light.  However, within the first few cantos of Orlando Furioso I quickly realized that Spenser just stole his best bits from the Italians.  Many of the choice scenes or most memorable figures (like the doomed lovers changed into talking trees) from The Faerie Queene are pulled right out of Orlando Furioso.  As allegories, they may be doing more work (I look forward to reading more of Maureen Quilligan’s The Language of Allegory to explore this idea more), but as good reading fun they just aren’t as captivating.  Ah, well.

On a final note for this week’s post I would like to quote the opening to the seventh canto:

“He who travels far afield beholds things which lie beyond the bounds of belief; and when he returns to tell of them, he is not believed, but is dismissed as a liar, for the ignorant throng will refuse to accept his word, but needs must see with their own eyes, touch with their own hands.  This being so, I realize that my words will gain scant credence where they outstrip the experience of my hearers. / Still, whatever degree of reliance is placed on my word, I shall not trouble myself about the ignorant and mindless rabble: I know that you, my sharp, clear-headed listeners will see the shining truth of my tale.  To convince you, and you alone, is all that I wish to strive for, the only reward I seek” (Canto 7. 1-7, p. 60).

Compare this to Theophilus Lavender’s insistence on the truth of William Buddulph’s tale in his The travels of certain Englishmen into Africa, Asia, Troy, Bythinia, Thracia, and to the Blacke Sea And into Syria, Cilicia, Pisidia, Mesopotamia, Damascus, Canaan, Galile, Samaria, Iudea, Palestina, Ierusalem, Iericho, and to the Read Sea: and to sundry other places.  He argues that the true author “could never be perswaded to [publish his travels], but answered, that he knew how to spend his time better, and that he was not ignorant of the incredulitie of others in such cases, who will hardly beleeue any thing but that which they themselves have seen; and when they heare any thing that seemeth strange unto them, they reply, that travellers may lie by authority: but they are liers themselves which say so; for travellers have no more authority to lie than others, neither will they arrogate unto themselves more liberty to lie than others, especially being men that fear God as they (of all others) should be, who go down to the Sea in ships, and see the works of the Lord both by Sea and by Land, and his wonders in the deep.”

Ariosto understands something extremely important about the contract between story-teller and story-listener.  His assertion of truth (clearly a parody of contemporary travel narratives) comes just after a canto in which the hero is carried off by a hippogryph won from a battle with a magician, is taken to an enchanted island somewhere near India, talks to a man who has been turned into a cypress tree, and is ultimately bewitched by a cunning sorceress.  While the introduction to the seventh canto gently mocks the believability of the tale it also stresses the pleasure of maintaining a suspension of disbelief and highlights the core delight of hearing a story “just for you.”  The more carefully the author props up the struts of his or her tale the more willing you are to climb up them.  The tacit conversation between author and reader (the he knows that you know that the story isn’t real…but we are going to pretend anyway because it is more fun that way) begins to truly develop in the overlap of travel narratives and romance during this period.  I believe that this budding development starts in the Renaissance, gives the novel its potency, and flowers into some of the best Victorian adventure fiction tales and modern fantasy epics.

Reading List

And my reading list--yipes!!

Primary Texts:

Capystranus: A Metrical Romance. London: Wynkyn de Worde, 1515. British Library. Early

            English Books Online. Web.

Here begynneth a litell treatise of the knight of curtesy and the lady of Faguell. London:

            Wyllyam Copland, 1556. Bodleian Library. Early English Books Online. Web.

Sir Eglamour. London: Wynkyn de Worde, 1500. Cambridge University Library. Early English

            Books Online. Web.

            [note: two extant leaves]

---. London: Rycharde Bankys, 1528. Cambridge University Library. Early English

            Books Online. Web.

[note: six pages]

---. London: William Copland, 1565. Henry E. Huntington Library. Early

 English Books Online. Web.

Syr Degore. London: Wynkyn de Worde, 1513. Pierpont Morgan Library. Early English Books

            Online. Web.

Sir Tryamour. London: Wynkyn de Worde, 1530. Cambridge University Library. Early English

            Books Online. Web.

            [note: two leaves]

The Romance of King Alexander. London: R. Faques, 1525. British Library. Early English Books

 Online. Web.

The Squyr of Lowe Degre. London: Wyllyam Copland, 1560. British Library. Early English

            Books Online. Web.

Ariosto, Ludovico. Orlando Furisio. (1532) Ed. Guido Waldman. 2^nd Ed. Oxford: Oxford

            University Press, 1983. Print.

Barley, William. The deligtful [sic] history of Celestina the faire. Daughter to the king of

            Thessalie Shewing how she was inchaunted by the three fairies: with the strange

            aduentures, trauels, chiualries, tournies, combats, victories, and loues of diuers wandring

            princes and knights errant, but especially of Sir Marcomyr of Tharsus, who did conquest

            hir by the sword, and enioied her afterwards in mariage, with the Thessalian kingdome

            for hir dowrie, and his perpetuall inheritance. London: Adam Islip, 1596. Henry E.

            Huntington Library. Early English Books Online. Web.

Beaumont, Francis and John Fletcher. The Knight of the Burning Pestle. Printed by Nicholas

            Okes for I. Spencer, 1661. British Library. Early English Books Online. Web.

Behn, Aphra. Oroonoko. (1688) Oroonoko, The Rover, and Other Works. Ed. Janet Todd. New

            York: Penguin Books, 2003. Print.

---. The Rover. (1677 and 1681) Oroonoko, The Rover, and Other Works. Ed. Janet Todd. New

            York: Penguin Books, 2003. Print.

Best, George. A true discourse of the late voyages of discouerie, for the finding of a passage to

Cathaya, by the Northvveast, vnder the conduct of Martin Frobisher. London: Henry Bynnyman, 1578. Henry E. Huntington Library. Early English Books Online. Web.

Biddulph, William. Ed. Theophilus Lavender. The trauels of certaine Englishmen into Africa,

Asia, Troy, Bythinia, Thracia, and to the Blacke Sea And into Syria, Cilicia, Pisidia,

 Mesopotamia, Damascus, Canaan, Galile, Samaria, Iudea, Palestina, Ierusalem, Iericho, and to the Red Sea: and to sundry other places. London: Th. Haueland, 1609. Cambridge University Library. Early English Books Online. Web.

Brereton, John. A briefe and true relation of the discouerie of the north part of Virginia being a

most pleasant, fruitfull and commodious soile: made this present yeere 1602, by Captaine Bartholomew Gosnold, Captaine Bartholowmew [sic] Gilbert, and diuers other gentlemen their associats, by the permission of the honourable knight, Sir Walter Ralegh, &c. Written by M. Iohn Brereton one of the voyage. London: Eliot’s Court Press, 1602. Bodleian Library. Early English Books Online. Web.

Catalina de Erauso, Lieutenant Nun: Memoir of a Basque Transvestite in the New World. (1624). Trans. Michele and Gabriel Stepto. Boston: Beacon Press, 1996.

Cavendish, Margaret. Assaulted and Pursued Chastity. (1656). The Blazing World and Other Writings. Ed. Kate Lilly. New York: Penguin, 1994.

---. The Blazing World. (1666). The Blazing World and Other Writings. Ed. Kate Lilly. New York: Penguin, 1994.

Caxton, William. The right plesaunt and goodly historie of the foure sonnes of Aimon, which for

            the excellent endytyng of it, and for the notable prowes and great vertues that were in

            them: is no les pleasaunt to rede, then worthy to be knowen of all estates bothe hyghe and

            lowe. London: W. Copland for R. Toye, 1554. Library of Congress. Early English Books

            Online. Web.

Chapman, George. Hero and Leander. (1598). Hero and Leander. The Complete Poems and

            Translations. Ed. Stephen Orgel. New York: Penguin Books, 1980. Print.

Churchyard, Thomas. A Prayse and Reporte of Maister Martyne Froboishers Voyage to Meta

Incognita. London: Andrew Maunsell, 1578. Henry E. Huntington Library. Early English

Books Online. Web.

Coilzear, Rauf. Heir beginnis the taill of Rauf coilzear how he harbreit King charlis.

            Sanctandrios: Robert Lekpreuik, 1572. National Library of Scotland. Early English

            Books Online. Web.

Colet, Claude. The famous, pleasant, and variable historie, of Palladine of England Discoursing

            of honorable aduentures, of knightly deedes of armes and chiualrie: enterlaced likewise

            with the loue of sundrie noble personages, as time and affection limited their desires.

            Trans. Anthony Munday. London: Edward Allde, 1588. Henry E. Huntington Library.

            Early English Books Online. Web.

Columbus, Christopher. Diary of Columbus's First Voyage to America 1492-1493. (1492-1503).

Trans. Oliver Dunn and James E. Kelley, Jr. American Exploration and Travel Series 70. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989.

—. The Four Voyages. (1492-1503). Trans. J. M. Cohen. New York: Penguin Books, 1992.

Copeland, Robert. The Knight of the Swanne. London: Wyllyam Copland, 1560. British Library.

            Early English Books Online. Web.

[note: this version has 148 pages]

Copland, Robert. The Knyght of the Swanne. London: Wynkyn de Worde, 1512. British Library. Early English Books Online. Web.

[note: four extant pages]

Drayton, Michael, Poly-Olbion. or A chorographicall description of tracts, riuers, mountaines,

forests, and other parts of this renowned isle of Great Britaine with intermixture of the most remarquable stories, antiquities, wonders, rarityes, pleasures, and commodities of the same: digested in a poem by Michael Drayton, Esq. London: Printed by Humphrey Lownes for Mathew Lownes: I. Browne: I. Helme, and I. Busbie, 1613. Henry E. Huntington Library and Art Gallery. Early English Books Online. Web.

---. The second part, or a continuance of Poly-Olbion from the eighteenth song Containing all

the tracts, riuers, mountaines, and forrests: intermixed with the most remarkable stories, antiquities, wonders, rarities, pleasures, and commodities of the east, and northerne parts of this isle, lying betwixt the two famous riuers of Thames, and Tweed. London: Printed by Augustine Mathewes for Iohn Marriott, Iohn Grismand, and Thomas Dewe, 1622. Harvard University Library. Early English Books Online. Web.

Greene, Robert. The Descent of Euphues, Three Elizabethan Romance Stories: Euphues     Pandosto, Piers Plainness. (1587). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1957.

---. Menaphon. London: Printed by Thomas Orwin for Sampson Clarke, and are to be sold

            behinde the Royall Exchange, 1589. Henry E. Huntington Library and Art Gallery. Early

            English Books Online. Web.

---. Greenes Never Too Late; or a Powder of Experience. London: Thomas Orwin, 1590. Henry

            E. Huntington Library. Early English Books Online. Web.

Godwin, Francis. The Man in the Moone. (1638) Ed. William Poole. Toronto: Broadview Press,

            2009. Print.

Hariot, Thomas. A briefe and true report of the new found land of Virginia of the commodities

            there found and to be raysed, as well marchantable, as others for victuall, building and

other necessarie vses for those that are and shalbe the planters there; and of the nature and manners of the naturall inhabitants: discouered by the English colony there seated by Sir Richard Greinuile Knight in the yeere 1585. London: By R. Robinson, 1588. Henry E. Huntington Library and Art Gallery. Early English Books Online. Web.

Hakluyt, Richard. The Principal Navigations. London, 1598-1600. Folger Shakespeare Library.

            Early English Books Online. Web.

---. Divers Voyages Touching the Discouerie of America, and the Ilands Adiacent. (1582)

                        Facsimile ed. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1966.

---. Voyages and Discoveries. (1582) Ed. Jack Beeching. New York: Penguin Books,

            1982.

Heliodorus of Emesa. An AEthiopian historie, written in Greeke by Heliodorus. Trans. Thomas

            Vnderdowne. London: Henrie Middleton, 1577. Bodleian Library. Early English Books

            Online. Web.

H. R. The historie of Pheander the mayden knight Describing his honourable travailes and

            haughty attempts in armes, with his successe in loue, enterlaced with many pleasant

            discourses, wherein the grauer may take delight, and the valiant youthfull be encouraged

            by honourable and worthie aduenturing, to gaine fame. London: Barnard Alsop, 1617.

            Folger Shakespeare Library. Early English Books Online. Web.

Johnson, Richard. The most famous history of the seauen champions of Christendome Saint

George of England, Saint Dennis of Fraunce, Saint Iames of Spaine, Saint Anthonie of Italie, Saint Andrew of Scotland, Saint Pattricke of Ireland, and Saint Dauid of Wales. London: Printed by J. Danter for Cuthbert Burbie, and are to be sold at his shop, at the Royall Exchange, 1596. Henry E. Huntington Library and Art Gallery. Early English Books Online. Web.

---. The most pleasant history of Tom a Lincolne, that renowned soldier, the Red-

            Rose Knight, who for his valour and chivalry, was sirnamed the Boast of England

            Shewing his honourable victories in forraine countries, with his strange fortunes in the

            fayrie land: and how hee married the faire Anglitora, daughter to Prester Iohn, that

            renowned monarke of the world. Together with the liues and deaths of his two famous

            sons, the Blacke Knight, and the Fayrie Knight, with diuers other memorable accidents,

full of delight. London: Augustine Mathewes, 1635. Henry E. Huntington Library and Art Gallery. Early English Books Online. Web.

Lloyd, David and Martin Lluelyn. The legend of Captaine Iones: continued from his first part to

            his end: wherein is delivered his incredible adventures and atchievements by sea and

            land. Particularly; his miraculous deliverance from a wrack at sea by the support of a

            dolphin. His severall desperate duels. His combate with Bahader Cham a gyant of the

            race of Og. His loves. His deep imployments and happy successe in businesse of state. All

            of which, and more is but tithe of his owne relation, which he continued untill he grew

            speechelesse, and died. London: M.F., 1648. British Library. Early English Books

            Online. Web.

Lodge, Thomas, Rosalynd. London: Printed by Valentine Simmes for N. Lyng, and T. Gubbins,

            1598. Henry E. Huntington Library and Art Gallery. Early English Books Online. Web.

M. M. and Pierre, de la Cépède. Vienna Noe art can cut his hart. Wherein is storied ye valorous

            atchieuements, famous triumphs, constant loue, greate miseries, & finall happines, of the

 well-deseruing, truly noble and most valiant k[nigh]t Sr Paris of Viennae[sic] and ye

most admire[d], amiable princess the faire Vienna. A. Mathewes, 1628. British Library.

Early English Books Online. Web.

Malory, Thomas, Sir. Le Morte d’Arthur. 2^nd Ed. London: William Caxton: 1485. John Rylands

            University Library of Manchester. Early English Books Online. Web.

Mandeville, John. Here begynneth a lytell treatyse or booke named Johan Mau[n]deuyll knyght

born in Englonde in the towne of saynt Albone [and] speketh of the wayes of the holy londe towarde Jherusalem, [and] of marueyles of Ynde [and] of other dyuerse cou[n]trees. Westmynster: Wynken de Worde, 1499. Cambridge University Library. Early English Books Online. Web.

---. The Travels of Sir John Mandeville. Trans. C.W.R.D. Moseley.

            London: Penguin Books, 1983.

Marlowe, Christopher. Hero and Leander. (1598). Hero and Leander. The Complete Poems and

            Translations. Ed. Stephen Orgel. New York: Penguin Books, 1980. Print.

---. Tamburlaine. (1590) Doctor Faustus and Other Plays (Oxford’s World’s Classics). Ed.

            David Bevington and Eric Rasmussen. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. Print.

Middleton, Christopher. The famous historie of Chinon of England with his strange aduentures

            for the loue of Celestina daughter to Lewis King of Fraunce. VVith the worthy

            atchiuement of Sir Lancelot du Lake, and Sir Tristram du Lions for fair Laura, daughter

            to Cador Earle of Cornewall, beeing all knights of King Arthurs round table. London:

            John Danter, 1597. Henry E. Huntington Library. Early English Books Online. Web.

More, Thomas. Utopia. (1516). Ed. Edward Surtz, S.J., and J. H. Hexter. Vol. 4 of the Yale

            Edition of the Complete Works. Ed. Richard S. Sylvester et al. 15 vols. New Haven: Yale

University Press, 1963. Print.

—. Utopia. (1516). Ed. George M. Logan. Trans. Robert M. Adams. 3rd ed. New York: W. W.

            Norton, 2010. Print.

Munday, Anthony. The First Book of Amadis of Gaule. London: Edward Allde, 1590. British

 Library. Early English Books Online. Web.

Munday, Anthony. The first booke of Primaleon of Greece Describing the knightly deeds of

            armes, as also the memorable aduentures of Prince Edward of England. And continuing

            the former historie of Palmendos, brother to the fortunate Prince Primaleon. London:

            Printed J. Danter, 1595. British Library. Early English Books Online. Web.

Nash, Thomas. The Unfortunate Traveler. London: Thomas Scarlet, 1594. Bodleian Library.

            Early English Books Online. Web.

Neville, William and Robert Copland. The Castell of Pleasure. London: Hary Pepwell, 1518.

            British Library. Early English Books Online. Web.

Painter, William. The palace of pleasure beautified, adorned and well furnished, with pleasaunt

            histories and excellent nouelles, selected out of diuers good and commendable authors.

            London: John Kingston and Henry Denham for Richard Tottell and William Iones, 1566.

            Henry E. Huntington Library and Art Gallery. Early English Books Online. Web.

Parr, Anthony, ed. Three Renaissance Travel Plays. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995.

Parry, Robert. Moderatus, the most delectable & famous historie of the blacke knight. London:

            Richard Ihones, 1595. Folger Shakespeare Library. Early English Books Online. Web

Partridge, John. The notable hystorie of two famous princes of the worlde, Astianax and Polixena

            wherein is set forth the cursed treason of Caulcas. London: Henry Denham, 1566.

            Bodleian Library. Early English Books Online. Web.

Ralegh, Walter. The Discoverie of the Large, Rich, and Bewtiful Empyre of Guiana. (1595) Ed.

            Neil L. Whitehead. American Exploration and Travel Series 77. Norman: University of

            Oklahoma Press, 1998. Print.

—. The Discovery of Guiana. (1595). Ed. Benjamin Schmidt. Boston: Bedford/ St. Martin's,

            2008. Print.

Rich, Barnabe. The Straunge and Wonderfull Aduentures of Don Simonides. London: John

            Kingston, 1581. Folger Shakespeare Library. Early English Books Online. Web.

Sidney, Philip. The Countess of Pembroke’s Arcadia. (1590, 1593. 1621) The Major Works. Ed.

            Katherine Duncan-Jones. Rev. ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Print. 

Spenser, Edmund. The Faerie Queene. (1590 and 1596) Ed. Christopher Ricks and Thomas P.

            Rosch, Jr.. London: Penguin Books, 1987. Print.

---. Works: A Variorum Edition. (1569-1633) Ed. Edwin Greenlaw, Charles Grosvenor Osgood,

            and Frederick Morgan Padelford. 10 vols. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1932-49.

            Print.

Tasso, Torquato. Discourses on the Heroic Poem. (1570) Trans. Mariella Cavalchini and Irene

            Samuel. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973. Print.

---. La Gerusalemme Liberate (1581) Jerusalem Delivered: An English Prose Version. Trans.

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